Hand clearance

Organising a group

This will depend on the type of vegetation and the number of volunteers. Space to work is usually very restricted, so if there are more than five volunteers, split them into groups with each taking a section, either ‘leap frogging’, or by dividing the total length by the number of groups. In very dense vegetation it may be difficult to work other than from one end of the path, but it should be possible for volunteers to follow the route taken by the person who marked the path. It is not unknown for one hardy volunteer to have to wriggle into the undergrowth and clear a space until there is room for another to follow!

With all clearance work, the main problem is in getting rid of the cut material. Sometimes it is possible to get rid of the debris off the edge of the path by dumping it in clearings, pushing it under overhanging scrub and filling holes in the ground. All non-woody material will rapidly bulk down and decompose. In this type of vegetation each person can cut and dispose of material. In clearance of thickets and woody growth there will have to be a division of labour between people cutting and people carrying and disposing of debris.

A possible division of labour is as follows. One person ‘breaks the trail’ using a slasher or billhook on brambles and light scrub. Material is then pulled back from behind them by one or two people using pitchforks or rakes, and carried to the point where it is to be dumped or burnt. They are followed by a person with a bow saw to fell any small trees or lop overhanging branches, and a fifth person to remove or treat stumps, and to do a final tidy-up with a pitchfork or rake.

Avoid having a bonfire if there is any other satisfactory way of getting rid of the material. Bonfires are enjoyable, especially in cold weather, but are environmentally undesirable, and can take up to half the volunteer effort because of the time involved in carrying material to the fire and in tending it.

On a path requiring only light clearance it is usually possible for each person or two sharing to have a set of tools such as a slasher, loppers and bowsaw, and to work on their own section of path.

Non-woody growth

Cut back overhanging growth with a grass hook. Use a crooked stick to hold the vegetation for cutting with a hook.

Grasses and herbaceous plants can also be cut with a scythe or scythette. Scythes require some practice to handle effectively but are useful on wide paths or for cutting glades. Scythettes are easy to use, but are slower and less robust.

Brambles

Brambles need to be attacked in orderly fashion from ‘inside-out’, as the outer growth is springy and rather resistant to cutting.

1. Using a slasher or grass hook, make two vertical cuts as shown, and one underneath to cut through any rooting stolons. The mass of bramble can then be pulled away. Bramble frequently grows along fence lines, and if agreed by the landowner, remove the bramble from both sides of the fence or it will quickly regrow.
   
2. Alternatively, for those not adept at using slashers, it is possible but slower to cut your way with loppers to the root of the plant, and then to pull the growth away from the root end. You should then have a big bundle of growth which you can easily drag away. If you start cutting from the outside of the plant you will end up with lots of small pieces of prickly growth which are difficult to handle.
3. Bramble spreads by stolons, which are stems that bend down and root at the perimeter of the plant. Sometimes a long stolon can be pulled away which is rooting at several points along its length. Always try to remove as many roots as possible, or else the plant will quickly sprout new growth. Herbicide treatment may be necessary.

Nettles

The stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), is a perennial plant with a very tough and dense root system which is difficult to remove from a path by digging. The plant is easily cut or trampled but rapidly grows again, and in the south, has a very long growing season. Cutting must be frequent if no other method of control is used. Scythes are better than grass hooks for cutting tall nettles as they allow one to keep a comfortable distance from the plant. Repeated cutting and trampling will weaken the plant, but herbicide treatment may be necessary.

Bracken

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is a fern, being flowerless and reproducing by spores instead of seeds. It spreads mainly by tough underground stems called rhizomes.

When cutting bracken, especially in late July, an ori-nasal mask should be worn to prevent inhalation of spores. Bracken also harbours sheep ticks during the summer months, and it is advisable to wear long-sleeved clothing with tight cuffs, and trousers tucked into socks, to decrease the chance of infestation.

Bracken is easily trampled or cut in spring and early summer, but can present a formidable barrier by August, especially on rich moist soils in the south. If cutting is to be the only treatment, timing is very important as it should be done when the food store in the rhizomes is at its weakest. The best method is to cut in mid June, and then again at the end of July to remove any secondary growth which will have further depleted the food store. If only one cut is possible, do it at the end of July. By August it is getting too late, as sugars produced in the fronds are by then moving down into the rhizome. Cutting tends to increase the frond density, but fronds are short and weak and the path will be easy to see and follow.

Bracken is not destroyed by trampling until the level of trampling is such that other plants are destroyed. Herbicide treatment is described here.

Other plants

Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) is an introduced plant with extremely vigorous growth and extensive underground stems. It has heart shaped leaves and a cane-like stem that grows up to 2m tall and hardens by mid-summer. The stems remain over winter. It has some wildlife value for birds and invertebrates, and mature stands may develop a woodland type ground flora, but on most sites it should be eradicated. Herbicide treatment is the only effective method of control. Warn, and enlist the assistance of adjacent landowners as it spreads rapidly.

Various species of thistle are common on paths in agricultural areas. Cut plants down in mid summer before they seed. Rose-bay willow herb (Epilobium angustifolium) is a rapid coloniser of disturbed ground and it may be wise to cut it in flower to prevent it seeding. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and red campion (Silene dioica) may flourish where a woodland canopy has been recently removed, but decline in the following years.

All the native plants mentioned above have their own value in the British flora, as well as being food plants or egg- laying sites for invertebrates. Do not cut more than is necessary to keep the path clear, unless edges or glades are being managed as described above.

Scrub

This term covers shrubs and small trees such as blackthorn (Prunus spinosa}, hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), elder (Sambucus nigra), holly (Ilex aquifolium} , rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum) and hazel (Corylus avellana).

The bowsaw is the safest and most efficient tool for felling, with the billhook and pruners useful for trimming and snedding. Beware of blackthorn, as wounds caused by the thorns can go septic.

1. On bushy or overhanging growth such as blackthorn or holly you will probably need to cut away the lower branches with loppers to gain access to the main stem or trunk. Give yourself plenty of room, or you will restrict the length of saw stroke you can make.
2. If the stump is to be chemically treated, cut it as low to the ground as possible. If it is going to be dug or winched out, leave about lm of stem for leverage.
3. Cut level or at a slight angle in the direction of fall, using the full length of the blade. A slight rocking motion, as shown below, gives greatest speed. Use both hands on a D-shaped saw until it is necessary to steady the tree. The triangular saw can be used one-handed. Use equal force on push and pull strokes to prevent the blade twisting.
   
4. Steady the trunk as it starts to settle or move, and saw quickly through the last bit to prevent the stem splitting.

Billhooks are useful on multi-stemmed or coppiced shrubs such as hazel.

1. Cut away with loppers or secateurs any young or springy shoots which the billhook may catch on.
2. Use a small billhook one handed, and keep the other hand as high up the stem as possible, for safety.
3. Cut small stems with a single, slightly upward-sweeping stroke. Larger stems can be cut by notching.

Stump removal

Removing  the  stumps  of  scrub  has  the  following advantages:

1. For most species there will be no re-growth. Poplar can re-grow from roots left in the soil.
2. Any hazard to walkers is removed.

However, there are disadvantages:

1. Removal disrupts the surface and foundation of the path, and may hasten erosion on slopes.
2. Removal can be difficult and time consuming, especially in rocky or compacted ground.

Stumps can be treated chemically to prevent or discourage re-growth, but does not solve the problem of the hazard to walkers. The following guidelines are suggested:

1. Remove all stumps from the line of a path which is going to be surfaced for intensive use. In this case a certain amount of ground disturbance will happen anyway.
2. Remove all stumps of species that have a low susceptibility to chemical treatment. This mainly applies to rhododendron, hawthorn and sycamore.
3. Remove all stumps from paths or edges that are to be maintained with grass-cutting machines or hand tools, to prevent damage to them.
4. If time is short or the path is in a remote location which only well-shod walkers should reach, treat all stumps chemically.

To remove stumps by hand:

1. Dig with a spade or mattock around the base of the stumps to expose as many roots as possible.
2. Chop through the roots with a grubbing mattock. Do not use an axe or you will blunt it on any earth or stones around the roots. Lever under cut roots with the other end of the mattock to loosen them.
3. Try and loosen the roots by levering on the stump. Chop under the stump with a sharp mattock or spade, and lever out using a crowbar or Tirfor winch.
4. Fill the hole, using material dug from off the path if necessary, and tread well down to leave an even surface. Finish to match the existing surfacing. If possible, repair a grass path with turves.

The following method is used for clearance of scrub, mainly blackthorn and hawthorn, by the National Trust at Badbury Rings, Dorset. This may not be suitable for clearing along the line of the path as stumps are left in place for several months. However, it is a very useful method of scrub control for restoring grassland and opening up areas for access, as it uses no chemicals.

The scrub is cut and removed in winter, leaving stumps about 200-300mm high. The re-growth is then flailed in late spring/early summer with a tractor-mounted flail. This causes the stumps to weep sap and then rot. Flailing is repeated up to twice more as necessary.

Ecological value

The value of any particular plant depends on the balance of species in the habitat. Try to conserve any that are uncommon but typical of the habitat. If a lot of clearance has to be done, conserve a representative sample of the range of species in the habitat. Try and visit the path that has to be cleared in the summer before clearance takes place, when it is easier to identify and evaluate the species. Note down and mark any that you wish to save.

Some species can be treated in such a way as to retain some ecological value, while making them more amenable as path-side plants.

1. Trim holly bushes of their lower branches to make a standard ‘tree’. This will look very unbalanced at first, but should grow into a reasonably shaped tree.
   
2. Ash, birch and other species can be encouraged to grow as single trees. From each stool, cut all stems but one, retaining the strongest and straightest. Growth will then concentrate into the single stem.
   
3. Although infected, elm appears to be not susceptible to the attack of the ambrosia beetle (responsible for Dutch Elm Disease) until it is about 3m high. As elm suckers rapidly it is possible to try and keep the plant healthy by continually cutting to restrict growth to this height. This maintains some scrub habitat for cover, and in particular conserves the habitat of the white-letter hairstreak butterfly, which is dependent on elm.

Trees

Unless a wide path is to be cleared through dense woodlands, the felling of mature trees is not usually required for footpath clearance. Felling of trees is described in Woodlands.

If side branches must be removed, use a pruning or bowsaw, with an extension to reach high branches. Always make the cut on the outer side of the branch bark ridge. A cut on the inner side will expose the trunk to fungal infection. Make the cut slanting slightly outwards.

If the branch is thicker than 30mm, it is likely to tear if only one cut is made. Make three cuts as shown.

Pollards

Pollarded trees are valuable habitats, as well as being traditional features of hedge banks and boundaries that footpaths often follow. Pollarding is a traditional method of producing roundwood for firewood and other uses, by growing the stems out of reach of livestock. Managed pollards are cut at intervals of between ten and twenty-five years, and are relatively simple to maintain. Ancient pollarded trees that have not been pollarded for generations should only be dealt with by specialists.

Safety precautions must be observed when using ladders for pollarding. The ladder should be long enough, extending 1m beyond the highest rung being used. The top of the ladder should be secured if possible, and if not, the bottom. Whilst the top is being secured, a second person should stand on the bottom rung. If neither top nor bottom can be secured, a second person should stand on the bottom rung at all times when the ladder is in use. Use a bowsaw or pruning saw on stems up to 100mm diameter, taking care that the ends fall clear away from you.

It is also possible to pollard existing trees, which may provide a useful compromise if the landowner wishes to clear trees to allow more light onto the path or adjacent field. Species suitable for pollarding include willow, lime, ash, field maple, holly, hornbeam, oak and beech. A new pollard is best made when the trunk is 100mm-l50mm diameter, at a height of 2m-3m, choosing a point with at least some branches below the desired cut. Ideally, leave a whorl of branches which can grow on for the next two growing seasons, before being cut away as desired. Cut above the height which any browsing stock can reach, taking care not to split the trunk or infection may result. Follow standard tree felling practices for this and for maintaining old pollards which have stems over 100mm diameter.

Fallen trees

Large trees that have fallen across the path should be cut at either side, using a chain saw. Roll the freed section off the path, or cut it up for use.

Alternatively, if the fallen tree is not a hindrance to legitimate use, or is on a path already inaccessible to wheelchairs, the trunk may be useful as a barrier against horses or motorbikes. If necessary a step can be cut, by making two vertical cuts with the saw, slightly below the finished height of the step. The step should be not higher than 400mm, to be easily negotiable by walkers. Cut the step away using either the chain saw, or by knocking wedges in on each side. Knock them in by equal stages on either side so that a horizontal cut is made.

Smaller trees only need one cut, and then the top can be dragged off the path. Cutting up and disposal of fallen trees depends on the habitat and the situation. You may be able to use the timber elsewhere along the path for steps or barriers, but if not, leave it in place as rotting timber provides a good habitat.

Saplings

By way of balancing the destructive element of path clearance work, a positive contribution to the landscape can be made by tagging saplings. This involves attaching tags to saplings which are to be left to grow into mature trees. Use tags of a bright colour which are easily visible to machine operators. Tagging must be done in agreement with the landowner if the system is to be respected. Choose straight, healthy saplings, leaving at least 10m between each.