The wide variety of urban habitats reflects their past and present use.
Relict habitats
These are areas of land which, for a variety of reasons, have remained relatively untouched by the urban development which surrounds them. This may be due to natural factors such as drainage or topography, which made them unsuitable for building, or due to the type of ownership which has allowed either non-intervention or low levels of management to continue throughout the process of urbanisation.
Common land has been the means by which some habitats have been protected over many centuries. These ancient commons were established for grazing, gathering of fuel and other purposes, for the benefit of those local people with common rights, although usually remaining in the ownership of the lord of the manor. Port Meadow in Oxford, 350 acres in extent, has been an open common since 1086, and Preston Moor since 1253, though it was made into a formal park in 1867. However, particularly in urban areas of the midlands and north, many commons were lost where owners enclosed the land for building. Commons are usually of land which, for reasons of poor soil, were not valued for cultivation. Many are heath, moor, or acid woodland, and through long periods of minimal intervention, have retained much of their natural character and interest.
Areas of ancient semi-natural woodland have survived, for example, in parks, on golf courses and on steep, inaccessible land. Old hedgerows, which may contain descendants of the ancient semi-natural woodland, still survive. Individual trees may be survivors of former woodland, long pre-dating the housing and garden planting now intermingled with them. However, not all old trees are of native origin. Oaks in particular were widely planted during the 17th and 18th Centuries, with much of the planting stock introduced from the continent.
Relict areas of grassland, which have not been fertilised or resown, may occur on commons, water meadows, and in parks, churchyards and golf courses. Other areas of grassland in gardens and recreational sites have been sown or largely altered by management. Some areas of heathland remain, but once fragmented by roads or housing become degraded and of less value for the particular wildlife they support. Great efforts are being put into protecting from development those areas that remain.
River and estuarine habitats are amongst the most natural ecosystems in this country, but in urban areas most have been radically altered for building, transport systems and flood prevention. However, many rivers are less polluted now than they have been for a century or more, and support an increasing range of aquatic and marginal vegetation, fish and other fauna, and where their beds, banks, flood meadows and other features survive in near-natural form, there is increasing interest in protecting them from development.
Industrial and development sites
These include various types of land which have been used in the past for industry, housing or quarrying. Some of these may be vacant in the short-term, awaiting further development, but others are long abandoned sites which would require major restoration to be of use for development. Many support an interesting assemblage of flora and fauna, due to their disturbed soils, extremes of pH, impeded drainage patterns or topography. These may support dynamic, changing habitats, or species which are uncommon. In other cases their physical limitations may act as a brake on natural succession, so maintaining high floral diversity and early succession invertebrates, many of which are uncommon. The inaccessibility of some sites also adds to their wildlife value, supporting species which are intolerant of human disturbance.
Many of these sites comprise tips of various types, including building rubble, pulverised fuel ash (PFA), colliery shale, lime sludge, steel slag, lead mine spoil and jewellers’ rouge lagoons produced during plate glass manufacture.
Tips of PFA totalled an area of 1,400 ha in Britain by 1979, of which about 400 ha had been left to colonise naturally. These have produced botanically exciting habitats, ranging from floating fens and bogs to dry woodland. In the initial stages of the succession, the high salt content supports a range of plants typical of coastal sand dunes, which appear even at sites many miles from the sea. The salts are gradually leached out, and between about eight and 20 years after the tip was abandoned a very wide range of plants appear, notably orchids in dense, spectacular stands. These are eventually succeeded by woodland. The constant creation of tips in the past ensured the supply of these dynamic habitats. Ironically, now that coal-powered electricity generation is sharply declining and tipping is brought under greater control, few new sites are being created, and those that remain need protection and management to retain their botanic variety. For further details see Shaw, P (1994).
Old quarries have value for their geological exposures, as well as associated flora and fauna. RIGS (Regionally Important Geological/Geomorphological Sites) are sites that are considered worthy of protection for their educational, research, historical or aesthetic importance. RIGS are selected and conserved at local level by RIGS groups, which may draw their membership from the county wildlife trust, local museum and earth science society, together with local authority representatives and teachers, as well as local minerals industry and landowner associations. RIGS are supported by English nature and the Geologists’ Association, from whom further details are available.
Areas of land awaiting development support interesting ruderal vegetation and associated fauna, and depending on your point of view, can either be seen as exciting wildlife habitats, or neglected areas of wasteland, suggestive of urban decay. In some cities, many of these sites are covered with topsoil, and then sown with quick-growing rye-grass with areas of tree-planting to improve appearance and encourage investment in the area. This type of treatment is expensive, and suppresses the naturally developing wildlife interest. In Sheffield, the practice in recent decades has been to leave the sites to vegetate naturally, and within 3-4 years they support a ruderal vegetation dominated by goat’s rue and Michaelmas daisy. These sites are colourful and alive with butterflies, grasshoppers and flocks of seed eating birds during the summer months, but mostly unattractive during the winter. Efforts are being made to find a compromise, which improves the speed of colonisation and the winter appearance of these sites, but retains the spontaneous element. The 6 ha site of a demolished steel works in the Lower Don Valley comprised a mosaic of concrete floors, spreads of rubble and areas of finer material. The margins, entrances and several square shaped areas of fine material were sown with a fescue-dominated mix, and produced bold areas of green which improved the site’s appearance. The remaining 35% of the site was left to colonise naturally with the area’s spontaneous and spectacular local vegetation. The bold geometric pattern left by the former land use created an exciting and attractive new landscape. For further details see Enact, English nature (vol 3. no 4).
There is a real challenge in choosing the best ways to manage these areas of urban green space to make them visually attractive, of value to wildlife, and accessible and useful to the local people. Many redundant industrial sites are ugly and dangerous, with unstable slopes, unsafe underground workings, steep banked pools, methane leakage and toxic wastes. Restoration is needed to make these sites safe for conservation and amenity use, whilst retaining any features which are, or could be, valuable. Other sites may, in their existing state, have wildlife value, historical interest or particular associations for local people. Through consultation and by taking account of people’s knowledge and feelings about the site, ‘improvement schemes’ which are unnecessary or inappropriate can be avoided.
Transport networks
Redundant transport networks include disused railways and canals. Where they are still continuous, they provide valuable green corridors through urban areas. They have value for the wildlife they contain, as corridors along which wildlife can spread, and as traffic-free cycle and walking routes, which can also retain some wildlife value. Most canals with potential for restoration are now back in use for recreational boating, and some sections incorporate towpaths for walking and cycling. Cycleways are likely to be developed along suitable redundant railways and other corridors. Short sections which are no longer continuous can be managed as walks or linear parks, or for cycling, joined with other suitable cycling routes.
Cycleways need careful consultation and design, both to make them safe for cyclists, and to avoid conflict with walkers and local residents. With the national Cycle network and other cycling initiatives forging ahead, experience and advice in this area is developing rapidly. Detailed information is given in Making Ways for the Bicycle (Sustrans, 1994) and The National Cycle Network: Guidelines and Practical Details Issue 2 (Sustrans, 1997). Contact Sustrans for details of information leaflets, technical publications and route maps.
Working canals have plenty of opportunities for practical conservation work, in repairs to the canal banks, towpaths, and management of canalside vegetation. For further information contact the Canal & River Trust, Scottish Canals or the Waterways Recovery Group.
Churchyards and cemeteries
Many churchyards and cemeteries are situated on old meadowland or pastures, and are often very rich in plant species. Small rural churchyards of less than an acre may have well over a hundred species of flowering plants, ferns and lichens, as well as an interesting invertebrate fauna. Air pollution, isolation and other factors result in city churchyards and cemeteries having fewer species, but they can still be important habitats within their local area. Churchyards which are either neglected and overgrown, or those which are managed intensively as a garden can both benefit from management which is sensitive to wildlife.
Costs of intensive maintenance can be reduced by introducing a mowing regime which results in a mosaic of differently cut grassland, which will benefit a range of plants and invertebrates. This mosaic could include areas cut every other year, areas cut once a year, areas cut 3-4 times a year, and closely mown paths and lawns. note that different machines are needed to cut grass of different lengths.
Formal areas of bedding plants or roses can be planted with perennial nectar-producing wild and garden species which will provide food for butterflies and invertebrates from early spring to early autumn. Planting of native shrubs and trees for shelter and shade will also provide food and nesting sites for birds. nest boxes can be sited around the churchyard, with special boxes for owls and falcons to encourage nesting in the church tower.
Churchyards are of great significance for lichens, and over 300 of the 1700 British species have been found on churchyard stone in lowland England. Almost half the species are rare, being found in only a few sites, and some seldom occur in any other habitat. Rural churchyards in western Britain are particularly notable, but many urban churchyards are also valuable sites. Lichens grow very slowly, and are long-lived, so individual plants on old gravestones may be almost as old as the graves themselves. Lichens need constant conditions of light, and will decline if stones become overgrown or have their orientation changed. They are easily damaged by herbicides. Lichens do not damage the stonework, but protect it from weathering, and should be left to grow unless there is a particular desire to keep all the lettering legible. The roots of mosses can cause damage, especially on statuary, resulting in flaking in frosty weather. The gravestones and other stonework in churchyards are useful for the study of geology, and link well with local history and quarrying.
Churchyard projects can involve many different interest groups, including local historians, geologists, lichenologists, those with a particular interest in birds or butterflies, as well as local parishioners with an interest in gardening or flower arranging. The churchyard can become a focus for human activity as well as wildlife, yet still remain a place of solace and contemplation.
The Church and Conservation Project can provide a range of information on all aspects of nature conservation in churchyards and cemeteries, including leaflets, information packs, audio-visual material and advice on training days. note that some work, such as the erection of nestboxes or other structures, will require permission from the Diocese.
For further details see Cooper, Nigel, Church House Publishing (1995).
Derelict gardens and allotments
These tend to get overgrown with invasive species such as bramble and elder, which have a high value for some types of wildlife, but may not be the best use where green space is lacking. Where permission from landowners can be gained, the local community may find new ways of managing these areas. Sufficient management to keep paths clear, and provide a variety of habitats for wildlife and informal recreation may be the answer. Old allotments have fertile soils, and it may be possible to revive interest in cultivating them through the approach of permaculture and organic gardening, which has attraction for many people interested in sustainable lifestyles.
Recreational green space
These include parks, sports grounds, golf courses, and school grounds. Some of these include areas of semi- natural habitat, retained for screening or other purposes, or because their topography makes them unsuitable for recreation. On many sites there is potential for increasing the wildlife value of recreational green space, and also increasing their use as natural green spaces for people to enjoy. Many parks and recreation areas could do with less investment in grass-cutting and herbicides, and greater investment in staff who can manage and help others enjoy more natural landscapes. Sheffield has been leading the way in introducing more natural approaches to park management.
Prestwich Forest Park, Lancashire
This 250 hectare site of derelict and underused land is owned by Bury Metropolitan Council. The site is very variable, with some areas contaminated by heavy metals, lime and other waste materials, but including areas of undisturbed ground.
TCV has been actively involved in many aspects of management and development on the site. Work has included planting over 25,000 trees, by local residents, school and conservation groups. The planting has been very successful, with few failures even in drought years, and with little maintenance required for the young trees. The success is due to the use of small planting stock, closely spaced. A twenty-year-old plantation has been thinned, and another area of woodland has been set aside for harvesting woodland produce for basket making and wood turning, to encourage interest in the long-term management of the woodlands.
School groups use the site for nature walks, pond dipping and other activities. The educational use is set to greatly increase with the opening of an Environmental Education Centre nearby. In common with many urban sites, Prestwich Forest Park suffers from vandalism, fly-tipping and other problems, which will only be prevented by increased wardening.
Low Brankin Moor Ecology Park, Darlington
Low Brankin Moor Ecology Park, near Darlington, is a two hectare area of abandoned allotments, enclosed by road, railway and caravan park. The area was characterised by thickets of scrub and brambles, interspersed with open glades. TCV has worked on the site for several years to diversify the range of habitats, in order to increase the value of the area for wildlife, and to create an outdoor classroom for use by local schools. Work has included the planting of broadleaved woodland, the establishment of spring and summer meadows, and the creation of ponds, wetland areas and a butterfly garden.
The existing areas of scrub, bramble and wild roses are very valuable as they provide breeding sites for birds, including whitethroats, blackcaps and garden warblers, and for many small mammals, as well as foraging and hibernation sites for amphibians and invertebrates. The management objective is to maintain the scrub in its present condition by preventing its succession to woodland. This requires the removal of sycamore and other colonising trees. The glades are kept open by mowing or scything at a variety of sward heights, to benefit a diversity of invertebrates. The scrub habitat is vulnerable to being destroyed by vandals who start fires.
A wide variety of native broadleaved trees have been planted to create a diverse woodland, with the aim of attracting invertebrates. The fertile soil of the former allotments is a hindrance in the formation of a woodland flora, as it favours the growth of grasses, and it will be some years before the trees cast sufficient shade to allow woodland species to compete. For the first few years after planting the grass was cut and removed during the summer, to prevent it physically smothering the young trees. Ramsons, bluebell and wood anemone have been planted. Understorey shrubs such as rose species are retained, but cut back where they are smothering young trees. Young Scots pine are pruned of their lower branches, to reduce their appeal as potential Christmas trees.
A spring meadow has been sown with plants that flower and set seed early in the year. The sward is cut in July, after the seeding of annual plants such as the yellow rattle, and before the coarser grasses have set seed. The cuttings are left on the meadow for two days to allow the seeds to fall, and are then removed from the meadow and scattered in the scrub areas. For the remainder of the growing season, the sward is kept at a height of no more than 5cm, and the cuttings removed. While cutting, aggressive use of mechanical scrubcutters creates areas of bare earth in which herb seeds can germinate.
Two ponds have been dug, one large and shallow, the other smaller and deeper, with a drainage ditch running between them. A path alongside is kept close-mown all year, to encourage access only to one side of the ponds, leaving the other sides undisturbed for amphibians and invertebrates. All management work is also carried out from the path. A large stand of reedmace is kept to a maximum area of four square metres, to prevent it invading the entire pond. Other pond vegetation is removed in rotation, no more than one-fifth being cleared each year.
Forest Fields Play Centre Nature Garden, Nottingham
Forest Fields Play Centre Nature Garden, Nottingham, was created in a part of the playground attached to the Play Centre, which is in a heavily built up area of the city. The Play Centre is a place for local children, aged 5-14, to go after school and in the holidays. TCV worked with the playleaders to design and construct a small pond, bog and raised beds in an area of about 30 sq metres, with the aim of introducing the children to wildlife gardening and environmental issues, and of providing an area for practical activity through the seasons.
The main practical work was done over two days. This included removing a redundant fence of concrete sleepers, which were re-used to make the raised beds, creating a small pond using a triple-bonded PVC liner, and building a small rockery. Some of the staff and children then visited a local garden centre to choose the native plants for the raised beds, pond and bog, which the children helped plant. Plants included 36 species of marginals, deep water oxygenating plants, heathers for an ‘acid’ bed, about 25 native flowering plants, with shrubs and climbers for the walls and fences. The materials and plants for the nature garden totalled £916, and the project was grant-aided by English Nature.
The children greatly enjoyed helping create the garden, and it has provided a focus for other activities such as raising plants from seed. The garden gives a much needed greener, quieter corner for the children to enjoy, separated by a fence from the hurly-burly of the playground. Frog and toad spawn are being introduced into the pond, and hopefully some butterflies and other invertebrates will be attracted to the garden. The play centre is surrounded by terraced housing with small walled yards, but very little greenery. There is great potential for improving the environment with further native and garden planting, and the greatest benefit would be if the play centre garden provided the inspiration for local families to follow.
Craigton Cemetery, Glasgow
Craigton Cemetery is a 22 hectare cemetery on the southern outskirts of Glasgow. The site is privately owned, and over the years has been neglected, with fly-tipping and litter, vandalism and the invasive growth of Japanese knotweed. Although some of the lack of management has been beneficial for wildlife, with growth of trees, shrubs and other native plants, the general appearance is of neglect, which causes further problems of vandalism, as well as distress to relatives visiting the site.
EAGER became involved with the site, and a management plan was drawn up to concentrate the limited resources available on improving the appearance of the most visible parts of the cemetery. The remainder of the site would receive lower maintenance, thus maintaining the wildlife value, whilst improving the paths to encourage public use of the site for walking and quiet recreation.
The main objectives were the following:
- Removal of all rubbish from the site. After the initial clean-up, rubbish removal from verges and visible areas to remain the priority task of every visit to the site, with additional visits to specifically clear rubbish from elsewhere on the site.
- Removal of accumulated cut woody material by chipping. Further cuttings and prunings from site management work to be chipped in order to prevent accumulation in the future. Chippings to be used for path surfacing or mulch.
- The verge of the entrance road to be improved by mowing, and wooden posts to be installed to prevent cars parking on the verges and churning them up.
- Repair of fencing.
- Removal of Japanese knotweed by herbicide spray.
- Hedge and tree planting.
Field study trips have been made to the cemetery by local school groups, and volunteers have helped with planting of bulbs and wildflowers.
Beersbridge Nature Walk, Belfast
Beersbridge Nature Walk, Belfast, has been created on a section of redundant railway which had become a site for fly-tipping and other unsocial activities. Conservation Volunteers Northern Ireland have been involved in making many improvements to the site, including removal of rubbish, path surfacing, fencing and vegetation management, which has transformed the site into a popular, attractive path used by hundreds of people every day. These include blind people with guide dogs, from a nearby centre for the blind, and this has led to the production of a taped guided walk, with funding from the Sensory Trust. Walkmans or big print guide books are used, referenced to brightly coloured posts for those with a little vision. A tactile map is also being produced.
Captain’s Clough, Bolton
Captain’s Clough, in the heart of Bolton, is a beautiful wooded valley which had been neglected for many years. Local people, in partnership with Bolton Metro Council, Bolton Wildlife Project and TCV, have transformed the site from a derelict, fly-tipped area into an open space which the whole community can enjoy. The focus of the project is a new footpath which makes the valley accessible to everyone and, as the site is right on the residents’ doorsteps, has been an important element in involving as many people in the project as possible.
